(Cockerell, 1892)
Diagnosis
Scale cover of adult female in life 1.75-2.25 mm diameter, circular, moderately convex; off-white or straw-coloured to dark brown; exuviae subcentral, darker than surrounding scale cover (Dekle, 1976) HEMPAL1.jpg and HEMPAL4.jpg . There is sometimes a strong contrast in colour between the relatively pale secreted scale and the dark exuviae, which can make the scale covers conspicuous. Male scale cover smaller than, but similar colour to, that of female; elongate oval with brown subterminal exuviae.
Body of slide-mounted adult female membranous and pyriform HEMPAS.jpg . Pygidium with large median lobes separated by at least 1/3 of the width of a median lobe; second lobes very reduced, usually not sclerotized; third lobes very reduced; large anal opening situated near the posterior margin of pygidium (less than 2.3 times its length from base of median lobes); paraphyses shorter than the lobes, present only on the margin between the third lobes; perivulvar pores present; and plates longer than the lobes, heavily fringed, the outermost plates often being the largest and most elaborate HEMPAP.jpg .
Host range
Hemiberlesia palmae is a polyphagous species that has been recorded from hosts belonging to 17 plant families (Borchsenius, 1966). Palms are favoured hosts. Hosts include species of: Aechmea, Aleurites, Alpinia, Anacardium, Annona, Artocarpus altilis, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Barringtonia, Bauhinia, Billbergia, Bixa, Bromelia, Bruguiera, Calophyllum, Camellia, Canavalia, Canistrum, Carica, Casuarina, Ceiba pentandra, Chrysophyllum, Citrus spp., Cocos nucifera, Coffea, Colocasia, Cordyline, Curcuma, Cycas, Decaspermum, Dioscorea, Elaeis, Elettaria, Epipremnum, Erythroxylum, Eucalyptus, Eugenia, Euphorbia, Ficus, Gliricidia, Grammatophyllum, Graptophyllum, Guaiacum, Guettarda, Heliconia, Hevea brasiliensis, Hibiscus, Kigelia, Leguminosae, Macadamia tetraphylla, Malus, Mangifera indica, Manihot, Mimusops, Miscanthus, Morinda, Musa spp., Olea europaea, Palmae, Pandanus, Passiflora, Persea americana, Phoenix, Pinus, Piper, Pithecellobium, Plumeria, Psidium guajava, Pyrus, Roystonea, Schuurmansia, Spondias, Stanhopea, Strychnos, Terminalia, Theobroma cacao, Tripsacum, Vanilla, Vriesea and Xanthosoma.
Affected plant stages: vegetative growing, flowering, fruiting and post-harvest stages
Affected plant parts: the leaves HEMPAL3.jpg and HEMPAL2.jpg and (to a lesser extent) the fruit
Biology and ecology
The biology of this scale insect has apparently not been studied. Crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and move to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. Dispersal of sessile adults and eggs occurs through human transport of infested plant material.
Economic impact
Hemiberlesia palmae is a pest of bananas in Malaysia and Fiji, and of oil palm in Malaysia (Chua and Wood, 1990). It often occurs in high numbers on the leaves of its hosts, especially on palms (Williams and Watson, 1988). It is a pest of tea in Malaysia (Yunus and Ho, 1970), infesting the stem, branches and leaves, making the bushes weak and unproductive; persistent attacks may kill pruned bushes (Chua and Wood, 1990). Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, describe it as a pest.
Detection and inspection methods
Closely examine the leaves for circular, moderately convex, off-white or straw-coloured to dark brown scale covers with darker subcentral exuviae. The scale covers are often conspicuous, pale with a dark central patch.
Phytosanitary protection
Hemiberlesia palmae is mentioned on quarantine lists (Burger and Ulenberg, 1990). It is frequently intercepted at plant quarantine inspection.
Natural enemies
The natural enemies of this scale insect have not been studied.
Distribution
See Hemiberlesia palmae distribution.
Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species. Gill, 1997, says that H. palmae cannot be separated from H. lataniae in the field; H. rapax is also similar.
Comments
The area of origin of Hemiberlesia palmae is not known. This tropical species was originally described from Jamaica, but has since been reported from many tropical countries. Gill, 1997, said it used to be present in California but has been eradicted. In northern countries it occurs under glass (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998). In spite of a report by Nakahara, 1982, Hemiberlesia palmae is not currently established under glass in the United Kingdom (C.P. Malumphy, Central Science Laboratory, UK, pers. comm.).
Europe
Belgium: under glass (Nakahara, 1982)
Cyprus: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Former USSR: under glass (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Germany: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Netherlands: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Poland: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Portugal: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Madeira: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Asia
Brunei Darussalam: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
China: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Shandong: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Yunnan: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
India
Kerala: present, no further details (Rao and Kumar, 1952)
Madras: present, no further details (Rao and Kumar, 1952)
Indonesia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Irian Jaya: present, no further details (Reyne, 1961)
Java: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sumatra: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Japan: present, cannot read any further details (Kawai, 1980; Tao, 1999)
Malaysia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
West Malaysia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sabah: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sarawak: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Philippines: present, no further details (Velasquez, 1971; Nakahara, 1982)
Singapore: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Southern Asia: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Sri Lanka: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Thailand: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Vietnam: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Africa
Central Africa: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Congo Democratic Republic: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Ghana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Guinea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Kenya: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Principe: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Sao Tomé: present, no further details (Fernandez, 1974; Nakahara, 1982)
Seychelles: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
South Africa: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Tanzania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Zanzibar: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Togo: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Western Hemisphere
Antigua: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Argentina: sporadic only (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tucumán: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Bolivia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Brazil: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Bahia: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Paraná: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Rio de Janeiro: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Rio Grande do Sul: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Sao Paulo: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Central America: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Chile: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Tarapacá: occasionally found in Azapa (Claps et al., 2001a)
Colombia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Kondo, 2001)
Costa Rica: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Cuba: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Dominica: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Ecuador: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Galapagos Is: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Guyana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Jamaica: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mexico: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Miller, 1996)
Nevis: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Peru: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Puerto Rico: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
St Kitts: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
St Lucia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Suriname: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Trinidad: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
USA
Florida: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Miller, 1996)
Hawaii: present on Oahu and Hawaii (Heu, 2002)
Oceania
Australia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Queensland (Magnetic Is): The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Caroline Is: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Fiji: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Guam: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Kiribati: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Kosrae: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Kusaie: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Papua New Guinea: present, no further details (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Palau: present (Nakahara, 1982; Beardsley, 1966)
Papua New Guinea: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Pohnpei: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Saipan: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Solomon Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
South Mariana Is: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Tonga: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Western Samoa: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Wotje Atoll: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Yap Is: present (Nakahara, 1982; Beardsley, 1966)