(Comstock, 1883)
Diagnosis
Scale cover of adult female in life circular to slightly oval, 0.75-1.5 mm long, flat to moderately convex, thin and parchment-like, yellow to yellowish brown with large, amber-coloured marginal (occasionally submarginal) exuviae PSPARL1.jpg . Scale cover of male elongate oval, 0.75 mm long, yellowish brown with yellow terminal exuviae (Dekle, 1976) PSEPARL.jpg .
Body of slide-mounted female approximately pyriform, membranous PSEPARS.jpg . Pygidium with median lobes not zygotic, not recessed; these lobes widely separated, with a pair of gland spines and a pair of setae located between their bases. Perivulvar pores present; spiracles not associated with spiracular pores; venter of thorax without any duct tubercles PSEPARP.jpg .
Host range
Pseudoparlatoria parlatoroides is a highly polyphagous species that has been recorded from hosts belonging to 30 plant families (Borchsenius, 1966). It shows a marked preference for orchid hosts. Hosts include species of: Acalypha, Amyris, Aristolochia, Aspidosperma, Bignonia, Brassavola, Camellia, Carica, Cattleya, Cestrum, Chlorophytum, Cinnamomum, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, Dianthus, Dorstenia, Drimys, Erythrina, Eugenia, Ficus, Hedera, Hibiscus, Ilex, Inga, Ixora, Jasminum, Jodina, Justicia, Laelia, Lycaste, Magnolia, Maytenus, Musa, Myrciaria, Nephelium, Nerium, Olea, Oncidium, Orchis, Paphiopedilum, Parkinsonia, Persea, Piper, Plectranthus, Plumeria, Porlieria, Prunus, Psidium guajava, Rhipsalis, Sabal, Schinus, Stanhopea, Suaeda, Theobroma and Vanilla.
Affected plant stages: vegetative growing, flowering and fruiting stages
Affected plant parts: on leaves PSPARL2.jpg , stems and (where relevant) pseudobulbs
Biology and ecology
Each female lays 30-130 eggs, and the crawlers emerge about 10 days later (Kosztarab, 1996). Crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and move to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. Dispersal of sessile adults and eggs occurs through human transport of infested plant material.
Economic impact
Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, describe this species as a pest.
Detection and inspection methods
Examine leaves, stems and (where relevant) pseudobulbs of the host-plants listed above, for circular to slightly oval, flat to moderately convex, thin and parchment-like, yellow to yellowish brown scale covers, each with large, amber-coloured marginal (occasionally submarginal) exuviae PSPARL2.jpg .
Phytosanitary protection
Pseudoparlatoria parlatoroides is mentioned on quarantine lists (Burger and Ulenberg, 1990).
Natural enemies
Parasitoids:
- Encarsia citrina, in Europe
Distribution
See Pseudoparlatoria parlatoroides distribution.
Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species.
Pseudoparlatoria ostreata Cockerell (acalypha scale) PSEOSTS.jpg could be misidentified as P. parlatoroides but differs by having numerous submarginal prepygidial macroducts PSEOSTP.jpg. In contrast, P. parlatoroides has relatively few submarginal macroducts, confined to the pygidium PSEPARP.jpg. Pseudoparlatoria ostreata is a polyphagous species known from USA (Florida), Mexico, Central America, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Nevis, Puerto Rico, St Croix, Argentina (Catamarca, Entre Rios, La Rioja, Mendoza, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán), Brazil (Paraíba, Sao Paulo), Ecuador, Guyana, Venezuela, Cameroon, Gabon, Guinea, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Congo Democratic Republic, southern Africa, France and Germany (under glass) on leaves and stems of species of Acalypha, Agathis, Aspidosperma, Bauhinia, Bromeliaceae, Carica, Cassia, Cattleya, Epidendrum, Eranthemum, Inga, Laelia, Nephelium, Oncidium, Orchidaceae, Paphiopedilum, Parkinsonia, Pelargonium, Prosopis, Senna, Solanum, Suaeda and Tillandsia (Claps et al., 2001a; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998; Miller, 1996; Nakahara, 1982; Silva et al., 1968; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK). It has been recorded from Ecuador as an important pest of Agavis. Habit sketch PSEOSTL.jpg
Comments
Pseudoparlatoria parlatoroides was confused with P. ostreata for many years, so early literature records are questionable (Kosztarab, 1996). It is probably of Neotropical origin, but has spread quite widely. In northern countries it occurs under glass. It has been eradicated in California (Gill, 1997). In spite of the record published by Nakahara, 1982, P. parlatoroides is not established in the United Kingdom (C.P. Malumphy, Central Science Laboratory, UK, pers. comm.). Pseudoparlatoria parlatoroides has not been recorded from Africa, Australia, the Pacific islands or from most of Asia.
Europe
Belgium: under glass (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Germany: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Former Czechoslovakia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Former USSR: under glass, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Italy: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Netherlands: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Portugal
Madeira: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Spain: present in Barcelona (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993)
Sweden: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Asia
Japan: present, no further details (Kawai, 1980)
Sri Lanka: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Western Hemisphere
Argentina
Buenos Aires: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Catamarca: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Chaco: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Entre Rios: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Mendoza: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Salta: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Santiago del Estero: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tucumán: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
?Bermuda: not recorded since 1922 (Hodgson and Hilburn, 1991)
Brazil
Guanabara: present, no further details (Silva et al., 1968)
Minas Gerais: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Rio de Janeiro: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Rio Grande do Sul: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Sao Paulo: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Colombia: present (Kondo, 2001)
Costa Rica: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Ecuador: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Guatemala: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Jamaica: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Mexico: present (Miller, 1996; Kondo, 2001)
Panama: present, no further details (Kondo, 2001)
Uruguay: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
USA: under glass in colder areas (Nakahara, 1982)
Alabama: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Florida: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Hawaii: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1981)
Georgia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Maryland: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New Jersey: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Texas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Oceania
New Zealand: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Charles and Henderson, submitted)