(Cooley, 1899)
Diagnosis
Scale cover of adult female 1.5-2.5 mm long, mussel-shaped, slightly convex, white to grey, with yellowish-brown terminal exuviae at the narrow end PINSTRL2.jpg . Male scale cover snow white, elongate with parallel sides, with three strongly raised longitudinal ridges and yellow-brown terminal exuviae (Davidson and Miller, 1990) PINSTRL3.jpg and PINSTRL2.jpg .
Body of slide-mounted adult female narrow and elongate, 1.0 mm long, membranous, without lateral tubercles PINSTRS.jpg . Pygidium with closely adpressed, well-developed median lobes without setae or gland spines between them; inner lobule of second lobes usually shorter than the adjacent pore prominence PINSTRPT.jpg , but if longer PINSTRP1.jpg , then not expanded and truncate distally; abdominal segment 5 with 1-3 submarginal macroducts on each side; and submedian dorsal scleroses present near the anterior edge of the pygidial shield.
Host range
Pinnaspis strachani is a highly polyphagous species that has been recorded from over 170 host genera belonging to 27 plant families (Davidson and Miller, 1990), but its host range is probably wider. Palms, Liliaceae and orchids are favoured hosts. Hosts include species of: Abutilon, Acacia, Agave, Albizia, Aleurites, Aloe, Alpinia, Anacardium occidentale, Annona spp.,Artocarpus spp., Asparagus, Asplenium, Barringtonia, Bauhinia, Bruguiera, Caesalpinia, Cajanus, Calophyllum, Camellia, Cananga, Canna, Capsicum spp., Cassia, Cassytha, Citrus spp., Coccoloba, Cocos nucifera, Colocasia eculenta, Cordia, Cordyline, Crinum, Crotalaria, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Cucurbitaceae, Cycas, Datura, Dioscorea spp., Diospyros kaki, Dodonaea, Dracaena, Elaeis guineensis, Erythrina spp., Eucalyptus, Eucharis, Euphorbia, Eurya, Excoecaria, Ficus, Fitchia, Furcraea, Gmelina, Gossypium hirsutum, Heliconia, Hernandia spp., Hibiscus spp., Inocarpus, Justicia, Laportea, Leucaena, Liliaceae, Litchi, Lycopersicon, Malvaviscus, Mangifera indica, Manihot esculenta, Maranta, Messerschmidia, Micromelum, Mimosa, Morinda, Musa, Nerium, Nypa fruticans, Ocimum, Olea europaea, Orchidaceae, Orchis, Palmae, Pandanus, Pedilanthus, Persea americana, Phaseolus vulgaris, Plumeria, Portulaca, Pouteria, Prunus, Punica, Pyrus, Rhaphidophora, Rhizophora, Ricinus, Saintpaulia, Sanseviera, Schefflera, Scindapsus, Solanum, Solanum melongena, Sophora, Stachytarpheta, Strelitzia, Terminalia, Thespesia, Tournefortia, Triumfetta, Urena, Veitchia, Vitis vinifera and Zingiber officinale.
Affected plant stages: vegetative, flowering, fruiting and post-harvest stages
Affected plant parts: usually on the twigs, branches and trunk, but occasionally on leaves PINSTRL2.jpg and fruit
Biology and ecology
Pinnaspis strachani is a bisexual species with multiple generations annually. The female lays eggs underneath the scale cover, and dies upon completion of oviposition. Upon hatching, the crawlers seek out feeding sites on the stems and leaves of the host; this is the dispersal stage. Males settle near to females. In Cuba, development time for the males and females is approximately 23 and 45 days respectively (Fernandez et al., 1993). Climatic conditions appear to influence the population density of this species, in addition to parasitoids and predators.
Symptoms
Heavy infestation by P. strachani may cause discoloration and mummification of fruit, discoloration of leaves, wilting, potential premature leaf drop, and die-back of stems or even the entire plant.
Economic impact
Pinnaspis strachani is an important occasional pest of several economic crops including Citrus, Hibiscus, palms, coconut, mango, cassava, banana and grapefruit. In Malaysia, it infests the fruits of oil palm (Chua and Wood, 1990). Gill, 1997, reported it to be commonly encountered in California, USA, on coconut husks and caps in quarantine, and on ti and ginger plants shipped from Hawaii. It was recorded as a pest of Agave, Citrus, Hibiscus, Elaeis guineensis and Hevea brasiliensis in Brazil (Foldi, 1988). Maddison, 1976, cited P. strachani as a pest of Citrus aurantifolia in Cook Is, Fiji, Kiribati, Niue and Tonga, and remarked that it was also a pest on the stems of Dioscorea spp. and Persea americana in the area. In French Polynesia it was described as a serious pest of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis in French Polynesia by Reboul, 1976. Pinnaspis strachani is a pest of olive in Peru (Canales Canales and Valdivieso, 1999). In Chile it is a pest of Asparagus, and has been distributed by the transport of infected ornamental plants (Claps et al., 2001a). Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, described P. strachani as a pest in the Palaeartic region. It is considered a minor pest of coconut in Sri Lanka (Fernando and Kanagaratnam, 1987). This species is commonly found infesting a number of plants in greenhouses.
Detection and inspection methods
Closely examine leaves, bark or fruits of the host-plants listed above, for mussel-shaped, white to grey scale covers, each with yellowish-brown terminal exuviae at the narrow end PINSTRL2.jpg .
Phytosanitary protection
Pinnaspis strachani is mentioned on quarantine lists (Burger and Ulenberg, 1990).
Natural enemies
Parasitoids:
- Aphytis sp.
- Aphytis diaspidis, attacking: nymphs, probably widespread - records known for Bardados; Sri Lanka; Introduced: Peru
- Aphytis holoxanthus, attacking: nymphs, adults
- Aphytis lingnanensis, attacking: nymphs, adults
- Aphytis mytilaspidis, attacking: nymphs, in Introduced: Hawaii
- Aphytis pinnaspidis, attacking: nymphs, in Probably widespread in tropical America: Brazil; Mexico; El Salvador
- Arrhenophagus chionaspidis, attacking: nymphs, in Bermuda; Barbados; Uganda; introduced: Peru
- Coccobius fulvus, attacking: nymphs, adults
- Comperiella indica
- Diaspiti aspidioti
- Encarsia berlesei, attacking: nymphs, adults
- Encarsia citrina, attacking: nymphs, in Hawaii, Peru
- Promuscidea unfasciativentris, attacking: nymphs, adults
- Thomsonisca amathus
Predators:
- Cheletogenes ornatus, attacking: nymphs, in Cuba
- Chilocorus nigrita, attacking: nymphs, adults
- Chilocorus renipustulatus, attacking: nymphs, adults, in Japan
- Pharoscymnus horni, attacking: nymphs, adults
- Rhyzobius pulchellus
- Signiphora spp.
Distribution
See Pinnaspis strachani distribution.
It is often difficult to distinguish P. strachani from P. aspidistrae in the field, as the difference in scale cover colour is not always reliable. Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species.
Pinnaspis strachani has been misidentified by a number of investigators. Specimens identified as Chionaspis minor Maskell from numerous countries other than New Zealand have been found to be misidentifications of P. strachani (Williams and Watson, 1988; Henderson, 2001). Chionaspis minor is a junior synonym of Pinnaspis dysoxyli (Maskell), a species native to New Zealand that feeds on Dysoxylum spectabile (Henderson, 2001).
Comments
Pinnaspis strachani probably originated in the Oriental region, but is now a cosmopolitan species in tropical and subtropical regions. It is restricted to glasshouses in temperate countries. The status of P. strachani in the United Kingdom is uncertain, due to confusion with P. aspidistrae (C.P. Malumphy, Central Science Laboratory, UK, pers. comm.); there are no recent records of P. strachani there. The species has not been recorded from Australia.
Europe
Former USSR: under glass (Nakahara, 1982)
Germany: under glass (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Hungary: restricted distribution under glass (Reiderne and Kozár, 1994)
Italy: under glass (Longo et al., 1995)
Poland: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Spain
Canary Is: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Asia
Chagos Archipelago: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
China
Hainan: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Hong Kong: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
India: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Andaman Is: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Andhra Pradesh: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Assam: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Bihar: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Goa: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Karnataka: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Kerala: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Maharashtra: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Tamil Nadu: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
West Bengal: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Indonesia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Irian Jaya: present, no further details (Reyne, 1961; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
Japan: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998) (see also Similar species)
Okinawa: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Korea: restricted distribution under glass (Paik, 1972; Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Malaysia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
West Malaysia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sarawak: Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Nepal: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Oman: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Pakistan: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
Philippines : present, no further details (Ferris, 1947; Nakahara, 1982)
Saudi Arabia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Singapore: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Sri Lanka: present, no further details (Ferris, 1947; Nakahara, 1982; Fernando and Kanagaratnam, 1987)
Taiwan: present, no further details (Takagi, 1970; Nakahara, 1982)
Thailand: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Vietnam: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Africa
Angola: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Benin: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
Cameroon: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Cape Verde Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Congo Democratic Republic: restricted distribution (Matile-Ferrero et al., 1982; Nakahara, 1982)
Côte d'Ivoire: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Eritrea: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Gambia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Ghana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Guinea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Kenya: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Liberia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Madagascar: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Malawi: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Mauritania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mauritius: present, no further details (Williams and Williams, 1988)
Mozambique: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Nigeria: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Principe: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Réunion: present, no further details (Williams and Williams, 1988)
Rodrigues: present, no further details (Williams and Williams, 1988)
Sao Tomé: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Senegal: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Seychelles: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Sierra Leone: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Somalia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sudan: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Tanzania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Zanzibar: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Togo: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
Uganda: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Western Hemisphere
Antigua and Barbuda: present, no further details (Schotman, 1989; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
Argentina
Tucumán: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Bahamas: present, no further details (Merrill, 1953)
Barbados: present, no further details (Bennett and Alam, 1985)
Belize: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Bermuda: common (Hodgson and Hilburn, 1991)
Brazil:
Amazonas: Manaus (Foldi, 1988; Claps et al., 2001a)
Minas Gerais: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Chile
Antofagasta: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Atacama: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Coquimbo: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
O'Higgins: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Santiago: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tarapacá: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Valparaiso: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Colombia: present, no further details (Mosquera, 1973; Kondo, 2001)
Cuba: restricted distribution (Fernandez et al., 1996)
Dominica: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Guyana: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Jamaica: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Mexico: present (Ferris, 1947; Merrill, 1953; Miller, 1996)
Panama: restricted distribution (Ferris, 1947; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
Peru: present, no further details (Canales Canales and Valdivieso, 1999)
Puerto Rico: present, no further details (Schotman, 1989)
St Kitts: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
St Lucia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
St Vincent and the Grenadines: present, no further details (Schotman, 1989; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK)
Trinidad: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
USA
Alabama: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Florida: widespread (Merrill, 1953; Dekle, 1976; Nakahara, 1982)
Georgia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Hawaii: widespread (Heu, 2002)
Louisiana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mississippi: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Texas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Venezuela: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Oceania
American Samoa: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Australia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Caroline Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Canton Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Cook Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Christmas I.: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Fiji: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Kiribati: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Marshall Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mariana Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New Caledonia: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
New Guinea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New Zealand: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Niue: present, no further details (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Ocean I.: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Palau Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Papua New Guinea: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Pohnpei: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Samoa: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Solomon Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tahiti: present, no further details (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tokelau: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tonga: present (APPPC, 1987; Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tuvalu: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Vanuatu: present (APPPC, 1987; Williams and Watson, 1988)
Wake I.: present, no further details (Beardsley, 1966)
Wallis Is: present, no further details (Cohic, 1959)
Western Samoa: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Yap Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)