(Curtis, 1843)
Diagnosis
In life, scale cover of adult female 1.5-2.0 mm long, oval, flat, tan to light yellowish-brown, semitransparent, with yellow-brown terminal exuviae with a longitudinal median stripe PAPROL4.jpg . Male scale cover elongate, white to tan, flat with a yellowish brown terminal exuviae with a longitudinal median stripe (Davidson and Miller, 1990; Gill, 1997) PAPROL1.jpg and PAPROL.jpg .
Body of slide-mounted adult female membranous, broadly oval, with two-bar ducts; fringed plates extending as far forward as abdominal segment 2; submarginal duct tubercles present on each side of the cephalothorax and the first abdominal segment; eyespot developed into a sclerotized spine; and membranous derm pocket present between margin and posterior spircacle on each side PAPROS.jpg . Pygidium with three pairs of rounded unilibulate lobes, fourth and fifth lobes plate-like; 3 plates present between lobes 3 and 4 on each side; and without any submedian macroducts within the frame formed by the perivulvar pores PAPROP1.jpg .
McKenzie, 1945, gives a detailed morphological description, illustrations and a key to the many species of Parlatoria. The first instar nymph of P. proteus was described and illustrated by Howell and Tippins, 1977.
Host range
Parlatoria proteus is a polyphagous species that has been recorded from hosts belonging to 122 genera in 22 plant families (Davidson and Miller, 1990); its host range is probably more extensive. Palms and orchids are favoured as hosts. Although P. proteus does occur on Citrus, it is not regarded as one of the normal Citrus pests (Williams and Watson, 1988). Hosts include species of: Areca, Bixa, Calophyllum, Camellia, Cattleya, Chrysalidocarpus, Citrus, Cocos nucifera, Coffea, Cycas, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Derris, Diospyros, Epipremnum, Eugenia, Ficus, Freycinetia, Gardenia, Hedera, Laelia, Litsea, Macadamia tetraphylla, Macrozamia, Malus spp., Mangifera indica, Monstera, Musa, Myrica, Myrtus, Nypa fruticans, Olea europaea, Oncidium, Orchidaceae, Osmanthus, Palmae, Phalaenopsis, Philodendron, Phoenix dactylifera, Pinus radiata, Podocarpus, Prunus, Quercus, Schefflera, Selenipedium, Sida, Tabernaemontana, Theobroma cacao, Vanda and Vitis vinifera.
Affected plant stages: vegetative growing, flowering, fruiting and post-harvest stages
Affected plant parts: on leaves PARLPRL2.jpg and PAPROL3.jpg ; also on bark, twigs and fruit
Biology and ecology
Both bisexual (Schmutterer, 1952) and parthenogenetic (Nur, 1971) populations of this species have been recorded. No other information is available on the biology of this species.
Crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and move to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. Dispersal of sessile adults and eggs occurs through human transport of infested plant material.
Economic impact
Parlatoria proteus is a pest of bananas in the Canary Is and Madagascar (Chua and Wood, 1990), and a pest of orchids in Florida (Dekle, 1976). Although P. proteus does occur on Citrus, it is not regarded as one of the normal Citrus pests (Williams and Watson, 1988). Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, describe this species as a pest in the Palaearctic region, and Foldi, 2001, lists it as an occasional pest in France. Parlatoria proteus is a pest of orchids in Florida (Dekle, 1976) and is an 'A'-rated pest in California, where it is not established but is found frequently on new nursery stock and is always eradicated (Gill, 1997).
Detection and inspection methods
Examine leaves of the host-plants listed above, for oval, flat, tan to light yellowish-brown, semitransparent scale covers, each with yellow-brown terminal exuviae PARLPRL2.jpg and PAPROL3.jpg .
Phytosanitary protection
Parlatoria proteus is mentioned on quarantine lists (Burger and Ulenberg, 1990).
Natural enemies
The natural enemies of Parlatoria proteus have not been studied.
Distribution
See Parlatoria proteus distribution.
Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species.
Parlatoria crotonis Douglas (croton parlatoria scale) could be misidentified as P. pergandii, but differs in having the fourth lobe slender, sclerotized and almost spurlike. In contrast, P. proteus has the fourth lobe membranous and very similar to the adjacent plates in structure and appearance, although usually much smaller PAPROP1.jpg. Parlatoria crotonis is a polyphagous and tropicopolitan species known from Italy, France, Cameroon, Egypt, Nigeria, Guinea, Madagascar, Nigeria, South Africa, India, Indonesia (Irian Jaya), Israel, Philippines, Taiwan, Cook Is, Fiji, Kiribati, Kwajalein Is, New Caledonia, Niue, Palau Is, Papua New Guinea, Tahiti, Truk Is, Solomon Is, Western Samoa, USA (District of Colombia (under glass), Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania), Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Guyana, Antigua, Bahamas, Cayman Is, Cuba, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, St Croix and St Lucia on leaves of species of Acer, Cocos, Codiaeum, Dendrobium, Ficus, Illicium, Inocarpus, Laurus, Magnolia, Palmae, Pandanus and Sapotaceae (Foldi, 2001; Tao, 1999; Wong et al., 1999; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998; Miller, 1996; Williams and Watson, 1988, Nakahara, 1982; Nakahara, 1981; Beardsley, 1966; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK). The main host is Codiaeum (Nakahara, 1982).
Comments
The area of origin of Parlatoria proteus is uncertain; it is now a tropicopolitan species (Williams and Watson, 1988) that also occurs in the subtropics. In northern countries it occurs only under glass (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998).
Europe
Belgium: under glass (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Bulgaria: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Denmark: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Former Czechoslovakia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Former USSR: under glass (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
France: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998; Foldi, 2001)
Germany: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Italy
Sardinia: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
Monaco: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Poland: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Spain: present in Valencia (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993)
United Kingdom
England: restricted to a few botanical collections under glass (C.P. Malumphy, Central Science Laboratory, UK, pers. comm.)
Asia
Brunei Darussalam: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
China
Fujian: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Guangdong: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Hong Kong: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Hunan: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Jiangxi: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Sichuan: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Yunnan: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Zhejiang: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
India: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Assam: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Karnataka: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Maharashtra: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sikkim: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Tamil Nadu: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
West Bengal: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Indonesia: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Sulawesi: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Iran: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Japan: present, cannot read any further details (Kawai, 1980; Tao, 1999)
Korea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Malaysia: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
West Malaysia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Pakistan: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Pakistan eastward through Indonesia and north to Japan and Korea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Philippines: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Singapore: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sri Lanka: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Taiwan: present, no further details (Wong et al., 1999)
Thailand: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Africa
Egypt: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mauritius: present, no further details (Williams and Williams, 1988)
Nigeria: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
South Africa: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Tanzania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Zanzibar: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Western Hemisphere
Argentina
Buenos Aires: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Bahamas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Bolivia: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Brazil: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Guanabara: present, no further details (Silva et al., 1968)
Paraíba: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Pernambuco: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Sao Paulo: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Caribbean Is: many (Nakahara, 1982)
Central America: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Colombia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Ecuador: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Guyana: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Jamaica: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Mexico: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Miller, 1996)
Panama: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Paraguay: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Peru: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Puerto Rico: present, no further details (USDA, 1978)
Suriname: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
USA: under glass in colder areas (Nakahara, 1982)
District of Colombia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Florida: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Hawaii: present on Oahu (Heu, 2002)
Illinois: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Kansas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Louisiana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Massachusetts: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Maryland: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Missouri: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mississippi: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New Jersey: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New York: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Pennsylvania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Tennessee: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Texas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Venezuela: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Tao, 1999)
Oceania
Australia: present, no further details (CSIRO, 2001)
Bonin Is: present (Nakahara, 1982; Beardsley, 1966)
Caroline Is: present (Nakahara, 1982; Beardsley, 1966)
Federated States of Micronesia, Nukuoro Atoll: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Fiji: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Kusaie: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Nauru: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
New Guinea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Palau: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Papua New Guinea: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Pohnpei: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Solomon Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
South Mariana Is: Guam (Nakahara, 1982; Beardsley, 1966)
Truk Is: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Western Samoa: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Yap Is: present (Beardsley, 1966)