(Targioni Tozzetti, 1867)
Diagnosis
In life, female scale cover elongate oval, 1.0-1.5 mm long, transparent light or yellowish brown with a slight median ridge and a single, terminal yellowish exuviae FIFIL4.jpg . The adult female is pupillarial, so there is almost no difference in appearance between the adult and the second instar scale covers. Male scale cover dull white, nearly transparent, with transparent terminal exuviae (Gill, 1997) FIFIL.jpg .
Body of slide-mounted adult female pupillarial, membranous, without any membranous process between antennal bases; antennal bases situated on margin, each base sclerotized and enlarged into an anterior projection (shape may vary from that in illustration) FIFIS.jpg . Pygidium with zygotic median lobes, forming an apical notch; up to four marginal macroducts present on each side of pygidium, at least some of these wide FIFIP.jpg . Second instar pygidium FIFI2I.jpg .
The first instar nymph was described and illustrated by Howell and Tippins, 1977.
Host range
Fiorinia fioriniae is a highly polyphagous species; it has been recorded from hosts belonging to 45 genera in 23 plant families (Davidson and Miller, 1990). Palms are favoured hosts. Hosts include species of: Anthurium, Araucaria, Buchanania, Camellia, Cinnamomum, Citrus spp., Cocos nucifera, Cupressus, Cycas, Decaspermum, Dictyosperma, Eucalyptus, Eugenia, Ficus spp., Hedera, Howea, Larix, Laurus nobilis, Leptospermum, Livistona, Mangifera indica, Myristica, Olea, Palmae, Persea americana, Phoenix, Phytelephas, Pinus, Podocarpus, Salix, Santalum, Sida, Taxus and Ulmus.
Affected plant stages: vegetative growing, flowering and fruiting stages
Affected plant parts: on the leaf undersides FIFIL2.jpg , often aligned along the veins FIFIL3.jpg
Biology and ecology
There are three generations per year on the lower leaf surfaces of tea in Japan (Murakami, 1970); in the southern USA, generations are continuous (Johnson and Lyon, 1976). Crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and move to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. Dispersal of sessile adults and eggs occurs through human transport of infested plant material.
Symptoms
Fiorinia fioriniae causes chlorosis of the leaf tissues by feeding sites, due to the toxic saliva injected while feeding FIFIL2.jpg . Serious defoliation of Persea americana by F. fioriniae was reported from New Caledonia (Cohic, 1958).
Economic impact
Fiorinia fioriniae was described as noxious on palms and ornamental plants by Zahradník, 1990; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, described it as a pest in the Palaearctic region. It caused serious defoliation of Persea americana on New Caledonia (Cohic, 1958) and was recorded as a pest of Cycas in New Guinea (Szent-Ivany et al., 1956). The species is a pest of olive in Peru (Canales Canales and Valdivieso, 1999).
Detection and inspection methods
Examine leaf undersides, especially along the veins, for elongate oval, transparent light or yellowish brown scale covers, each with a slight median ridge and a single, terminal yellowish exuviae.
Natural enemies
Parasitoids:
- Aphytis spp.
Predators:
- Karnyothrips flavipes
- Rhyzobius pulchellus
- Signiphora spp.
Distribution
See Fiorinia fioriniae distribution.
Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species. The three species below could be mistaken for F. fioriniae; they have been much confused in the literature, and sometimes synonymized, so the distribution and host information given (based on the literature) may not be completely accurate. Matile-Ferrero, 1990, dicussed F. externa, F. japonica, F. pinicola and F. vacciniae and provided keys to separate adult females (for all four species) and second instar males (for the first three species).
Fiorinia externa Ferris (elongate hemlock scale) FIEXS.jpg could be misidentified as F. fioriniae, but differs in its hosts (conifers) and in possessing some narrow as well as wide marginal ducts on each side of the pygidium FIEXP.jpg, and in lacking a dorsal sclerotized patch on the mesothorax. In contrast, F. fioriniae feeds on a wide variety of broadleaved hosts as well as evergreens, lacks any narrow marginal ducts on the pygidium FIPIP.jpg, and possesses a median area of roughened, sclerotized cuticle on the mesothorax FIFIS.jpg. Fiorinia externa is known from Canada, USA (Connecticut, District of Colombia, Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia), China (Fujian, Guangdong, Sichuan) and Japan on the undersides of needles and on new cones of species of Abies, Cedrus, Cupressus, Juniperus, Picea, Pinus, Pseudotsuga, Taxus and Tsuga; infestation can cause premature senescence and drop of needles (Tao, 1999; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998; Kosztarab, 1996; Kawai, 1980). The female second instar exuviae are red-brown, covered with translucent wax; scale cover of male white, elongate, with transparent terminal exuviae. In the USA there are one or two generations per year and all stages are present throughout the year (although overwintering is mostly as adult females or eggs); adult males are alate (Kosztarab, 1996). Colony FIEXL1.jpg ; external appearance of female FIEXL.jpg ; pygidium of second instar FIFI2I.jpg
Fiorinia japonica Kuwana (coniferous fiorinia scale) FIJAL1.jpg could be misidentified as F. fioriniae, but differs in its host range (conifers) and in possessing narrow as well as wide marginal ducts on each side of the pygidium FIJAP1.jpg. In contrast, F. fioriniae feeds on a wide variety of broadleaved hosts as well as evergreens, and has only wide marginal ducts on the pygidium FIFIP.jpg. Fiorinia japonica is known from France, India (West Bengal), China (Henan, Hebei, Fujian, Jiangxi, Jiangsu, Hong Kong), Japan, South-East Asia, Philippines, Taiwan, Australia (Queensland), Bonin Is, Mauritius and USA (Virginia) on the needles/leaves of species of Abies, Cedrus, Juniperus, Keteleeria, Picea, Pinus, Podocarpus, Taxus, Torreya and Tsuga (Rao and Kumar, 1952; Beardsley, 1966; Takagi, 1970; Kawai, 1980; Nakahara, 1982; Williams and Williams, 1988; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998; Tao, 1999; Wong et al., 1999; Foldi, 2001). Males are unknown (Kosztarab, 1996). Habit sketch FIJAL.jpg ; overview of adult female FIJAS.jpg ; pygidium of second instar FIJA2I.jpg
Fiorinia pinicola Maskell FIPIL2.jpg could be misidentified as F. fioriniae, but differs in its host range (conifers) and in possessing 6 or 7 wide marginal ducts on each side of the pygidium FIPIP.jpg. In contrast, F. fioriniae feeds on a wide variety of broadleaved hosts as well as evergreens, and has only 3 or 4 wide marginal ducts on the pygidium. Fiorinia pinicola is known from China (Hong Kong, Zhejiang, Guangdong, Hainan, Yunnan, Fujian, Guangxi), Taiwan, Japan, Bonin Islands, USA (Georgia, California (localized)), and Portugal on leaf/needle undersides of species of Aucuba, Camellia, Cephalotaxus, Cupressus, Eurya, Ficus, Magnolia, Myrica, Pinus, Pittosporum, Podocarpus, Quercus, Sciadopitys and Torreya (Tao, 1999; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998; Gill, 1997; Nakahara, 1982; Kawai, 1980; Takagi, 1970). Female antennae FIPIANT.jpg ; female anterior spiracle FIPISP.jpg ; colony with male scale covers FIPINL1.jpg ; colony FIPINL2.jpg ; external appearance of adult female FIPINL3.jpg
Comments
Fiorinia fioriniae is a tropicopolitan species that probably originated in eastern Asia. Its range now extends into some temperate areas, where it occurs under glass (Williams and Watson, 1988; Zahradník, 1990). In spite of reports by Nakahara, 1982, and Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, there have been no recent records of F. fioriniae in the United Kingdom and it is regarded as not established there (C.P. Malumphy, Central Science Laboratory, UK, pers. comm.).
Europe
Belgium: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Former USSR: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
France: present, no further details (Foldi, 2001)
Germany: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Greece: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Ireland: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Italy: present in the south (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Sicily: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
Malta: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Monaco: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Portugal
Azores: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Madeira: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Spain: present in Valencia (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993)
Canary Is: present, no further details (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Romania: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Asia
China: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Fujian: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Guangdong: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Hainan: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Hong Kong: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Inner Mongolia: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Ningxia: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
India: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Bihar: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Karnataka: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Israel: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Japan: present, no further details (Kawai, 1980; Tao, 1999)
Malaysia
West Malaysia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Philippines: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Sri Lanka: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Taiwan: present, no further details (Wong et al., 1999)
Turkey: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Africa
Algeria: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Cape Verde Is: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Egypt: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Madagascar: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mauritius: present, no further details (Williams and Williams, 1988)
Morocco: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mozambique: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Sao Tomé: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
South Africa: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
St Helena: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Tanzania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Western Hemisphere
Argentina: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Buenos Aires: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Entre Rios: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tucumán: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Barbados: present, no further details (Bennett and Alam, 1985)
?Bermuda: not collected since 1925 (Hodgson and Hilburn, 1991)
Brazil: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Guanabara: present, no further details (Silva et al., 1968)
Paraná: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Rio Grande do Sul: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Sao Paulo: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Central America: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Chile
Antofagasta: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Easter Island: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tarapacá: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Costa Rica: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Cuba: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Dominican Republic: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Jamaica: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mexico: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Miller, 1996)
Nevis: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Nicaragua: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Peru: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Canales Canales and Valdivieso, 1999)
Puerto Rico: present, no further details (Medina Gaud and Garcia Taduri, 1977; Nakahara, 1982)
Trinidad: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
USA: under glass in colder areas (Nakahara, 1982)
California: southwestern San Diego county only (Gill, 1997)
Connecticut: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
District of Colombia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Florida: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Georgia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Hawaii: present on Oahu, Hawaii, Maui and Lanai (Heu, 2002)
Illinois: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Maryland: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Massachusetts: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mississippi: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Ohio: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Oklahoma: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Pennsylvania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
South Carolina: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Texas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Oceania
Australia
New South Wales: present, no further details (CSIRO, 2001)
Queensland: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Victoria: The Natural History Museum, London, UK
Bonin Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Canton Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Cook Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
New Caledonia: present, no further details (Williams and Watson, 1988)
New Guinea: present (Szent-Ivany et al., 1956)
Tahiti: present, no further details (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Vanuatu: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Wallis Is: present, no further details (Cohic, 1959)
Western Samoa: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)