(Signoret, 1869)
Taxonomic note
There has been considerable confusion about the nomenclature of this species. In the past, both C. carueli (Signoret) and C. minima (Signoret) have been synonymized with C. visci (Lindinger, 1934); and have also been misidentified as C. juniperi (Bouché) (D.R. Miller and M. Gimpel, pers. comm.). C. minima and C. carueli were first synonymized by Boratynski, 1957, who disregarded page precedence in Signoret, 1869d, and made C. minima the senior name. Many authors (e.g. Borchsenius, 1966; Danzig, 1993; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998) have used C. carueli as the valid name on the basis of page precedence; however, the name C. minima is here regarded as correct on the basis of the first reviser's principle (ICZN, 1999).
Diagnosis
In life, scale cover of adult female 0.5-2.0 mm diameter, circular, moderately convex, white with central or subcentral yellow exuviae CARMIL3.jpg . Male scale cover elongate oval, white, with a slight median longitudinal ridge and yellow, terminal exuviae CARMIL2.jpg . Exposed body of adult female yellow with green mottling (Gill, 1997). Adult male winged (Ghauri, 1962).
Body of slide-mounted adult female 0.5-0.9 mm long, pyriform (widest at about the metathorax), with two-barred ducts CARMIS.jpg . Pygidium with 5 groups of perivulvar pores present; submarginal macroducts absent from abdominal segments V-VIII; and without any macroduct opening between the bases of the median lobes CARMINP.jpg .
Host range
Carulaspis minima has been recorded from hosts belonging to three families of evergreen conifers (Cephalotaxaceae, Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae) but especially on Juniperus (Davidson and Miller, 1990; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998). Hosts include species of: Callitris, Cephalotaxus, Chamaecyparis, Cryptomeria, Cupressus, Juniperus, Sequoia and Thuja.
Affected plant stages: vegetative growing, flowering and fruiting stages
Affected plant parts: on the needles/leaves CARMIL1.jpg ; sometimes on cones
Biology and ecology
Reproduction is sexual and there is one or more generations per year, depending on climate (Kosztarab and Kozár, 1988); C. minima overwinters as adult females (Davidson and Miller, 1990; Zahradník, 1990a; Gill, 1997). Each adult female lays up to 40 eggs (average 20), and the eggs hatch in about one week (Kosztarab, 1996). The distribution of this species is more southerly than that of C. juniperi (Kosztarab and Kozár, 1988).
Crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and move to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. Dispersal of sessile adults and eggs occurs through human transport of infested plant material.
Symptoms
Heavy infestations cause premature yellowing and dieback of green needles or branchlets, branch dieback (Gill, 1997) and even plant death (Kosztarab, 1996).
Economic impact
Kosztarab and Kozár, 1988, say that C. minima is often a pest of ornamental plantings in Central Europe. Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, record that this species can sometimes be a pest in the Palaearctic region. Foldi, 2001, lists it as an economically important pest in France. Infestations cause yellowing of the needles and, in heavy infestations, branch dieback (Gill, 1997). Carulaspis minima is regarded as a serious pest of Juniperus bermudiana in Bermuda, where it kills the native forest and adversely affects the tourist business (Rosen, 1990b; Gill, 1997).
Detection and inspection methods
Examine leaflets of host closely for small, circular white scale covers. Heavy infestation may be accompanied by yellowing of foliage near feeding sites.
Natural enemies
Parasitoids:
- Aphytis aonidiae
- Aphytis hispanicus
- Aphytis mytilaspidis
- Encarsia citrina
- Encarsia sp., in USA (Pennsylvania)
Predators:
- Aleuropteryx juniperi, in USA (Pennsylvania)
- Chilocorus bipustulatus
- Chilocorus renipustulatus
Distribution
See Carulaspis minima distribution.
Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species.
Carulaspis juniperi (Bouché) (juniper scale, cochenille du genévrier, cochinilla blanca de la tuya) CARJUL1.jpg is very similar to C. minima, especially in life, but it has a macroduct between the bases of the median lobes and lacks dorsal submarginal macroducts from abdominal segment VI CARJUP.jpg. In C. minima, there is no macroduct between the bases of the median lobes, and there are dorsal submarginal macroducts present on abdominal segment VI CARMINP.jpg. Carulaspis juniperi is a xerophilous species that has been recorded from Canada (British Colombia, Ontario), USA (Arkansas, California, Connecticut, District of Colombia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Maryland, Missouri, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia), Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, former Czechoslovakia, former USSR (Caucasus), France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Sicily, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal including Azores and Madeira, Poland, Romania, Spain (mainland, Balearic Is and Canary Is), Switzerland, United Kingdom (England), former Yugoslavia, former USSR (Crimea, north Caucasus, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan), Algeria, possibly Egypt, Morocco, Zimbabwe, Iran, Turkey, Australia (New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia) and New Zealand, on the needles/leaves and cones of species of Callitris, Chamaecyparis, Cryptomeria, Cupressocyparis, Cupressus, Juniperus, Libocedrus, Picea, Pinus, Sequoia, Taxodium, Taxus and Thuja (Yanin, 1975; Nakahara, 1982; Zahradník, 1990a; Davidson and Miller, 1990; Kozár et al., 1994; Longo et al., 1995; Mussey and Potter, 1997; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998; Foldi, 2001; Gertsson, 2001; CSIRO, 2001; The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK).Carulaspis juniperi was regarded as a principal armoured scale insect pest by [l][m]Literature[/m][r]Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975[/r]Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975. Yanin, 1975, listed it as one of the more injurious species in the Caucasus. Others regard it as sometimes a pest, especially in parks and gardens (Zahradník, 1990a; Davidson and Miller, 1990; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998); it causes chlorosis of the needles. Carulaspis juniperi has the same host range as C. minima, but prefers junipers and incense cedar in cooler habitats; C. minima prefers cypresses and junipers and warmer habitats (Gill, 1997). Foldi, 2001, lists C. juniperi as an economically important pest in France. Steinhauer, 1975, recorded C. juniperi as a primary pest of Juniperus in the USA. The species is native to Europe, where there is a complex of about five similar species (Gill, 1997); its appearance in life is very similar to C. minima, and its biology is summarized by Davidson and Miller, 1990. Carulaspis juniperi is common in urban environments, and there is one generation per year in Central Europe (Kosztarab and Kozár, 1988). Adult male winged (Ghauri, 1962). CARJUL3.jpg and CARJUL2.jpg and CARJUL.jpg
Getulaspis bupleuri (Marchall) is a species not included in the key, which could be accidentally misidentified as Carulaspis minima. However, G. bupleuri is an elongate species GEBUPS.jpg with submedian macroducts present on abdominal segment VI GEBUPP.jpg, whereas C. minima is broadly pyriform CARMIS.jpg, without any submedian macroducts on abdominal segment VI CARMINP.jpg. Getulaspis bupleuri is known from Libya, Morocco, Tunisia and Saudi Arabia on the leaves of Bupleurum, Globularia, Juniperus, Olea and Salvadora (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998). Argyriou, 1990, lists it as causing serious damage to olive in North Africa from Lybia to Morocco. GEBUPANT.jpg , GEBUPSP.jpg
See also genus Getulaspis, kingdom Animalia.
Comments
Carulaspis minima is native to Europe, where there is a complex of about five similar species (Gill, 1997). Due to transport of its ornamental host-plants, it is now widely distributed but does not occur in Australia (Davidson and Miller, 1990), or from the Pacific islands.
Europe
Austria: present, no further details (Kosztarab and Kozár, 1988)
Bulgaria: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Former USSR
Armenia: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Crimea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Georgia: present, no further details (Zahradník, 1990a; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Krasnodar Territory: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Transcaucasus: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Ukraine: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Uzbekistan: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Former Yugoslavia: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
France: present, no further details (Foldi, 2001)
Greece: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Germany: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Italy: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
Sardinia: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
Sicily: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
Portugal: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Azores: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Madeira Is: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Romania: present, no further details (Kosztarab and Kozár, 1988)
Spain: present in Almería, Gerona, Granada, Lérida, Madrid, Murcia, Pontevedra, Soria and Valencia (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993)
Balearic Is: present (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993)
Sweden: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
United Kingdom: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
England: present, no further details (Kosztarab and Kozár, 1988)
Asia
Iran: present, no further details (Seghatoleslami, 1977; Nakahara, 1982)
Israel: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Jordan: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Turkey: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Africa
Algeria: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Egypt: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Eritrea: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Ethiopia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Guinea: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Libya: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Morocco: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
South Africa: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Western Hemisphere
Argentina: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Bermuda: quite common (Hodgson and Hilburn, 1991)
Brazil: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Chile: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Easter Island: present, no further details (Charlín, 1973)
Santiago: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Colombia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Cuba: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mexico: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982; Miller, 1996)
North America: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Uruguay: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
USA: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
California: widespread and common (Gill, 1997)
Florida: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Georgia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Kansas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Louisiana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Hawaii: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Missouri: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New Mexico: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
North Carolina: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Oklahoma: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Pennsylvania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Tennessee: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Texas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Utah: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Virginia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
West Virginia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)