(Signoret, 1869)
Taxonomy
Pinnaspis aspidistrae has sometimes been confused with P. strachani in the past, when some authors regarded it as a junior synonym of P. strachani (e.g. Kawai, 1980).
Diagnosis
Scale cover of adult female 1.5-2.5 mm long, mussel-shaped, flat to slightly convex, light to dark brown, with yellowish-brown terminal exuviae at the narrow end PINASPL6.jpg and PINASL1.jpg . Male scale cover snow white, elongate with parallel sides, with three strongly raised longitudinal ridges and pale yellow to yellow-brown terminal exuviae (Davidson and Miller, 1990; Gill, 1997) PINASL4.jpg and PINASL1.jpg . Adult male winged (Ghauri, 1962).
Body of slide-mounted adult female narrow and elongate, 1 mm long, membranous, without lateral tubercles PINASS.jpg . Pygidium with closely adpressed, well-developed median lobes without setae or gland spines between them; second lobes usually smaller than median lobes. Abdominal segment 5 with 1-3 submarginal macroducts on each side; submedian dorsal scleroses absent from near the anterior edge of the pygidial shield. Inner lobule of second lobes usually shorter than the adjacent pore prominence, but if longer, then not expanded and truncate distally PINASP.jpg.
Host range
Pinnaspis aspidistrae is a polyphagous species found on numerous hosts, especially members of the plant families Liliaceae and Palmae, and ferns. Davidson and Miller, 1990, recorded hosts belonging to 60 genera in 27 plant families; hosts include species of Acacia, Acalypha, Adiantum, Aleurites, Annona, Asparagus, Aspidistra, Broussonetia, Capsicum annuum, Cassia, Catalpa, Cattleya, Cinnamomum, Citrus spp., Cleome, Cocos spp., Coffea, Cordyline, Crinum, Croton, Cucumis, Cyanotis, Cymbidium, Elaeis, Erythrina, ferns, Genipa, Geranium, Guettarda, Heliconia, Heterothalamus, Hibiscus, Hippeastrum, Inocarpus, Liriope, Lycopersicon, Mangifera, Manihot, Melia, Musa sapientum, Nephrolepis, Olea europaea, Ophiopogon, Palmae, Pandanus, Persea americana, Phoenix, Pittosporum, Plumeria, Portulaca, Pteridophyta, Raphanus, Rhaphidophora, Rollinia, Scutia, Sechium, Solanum and Terminalia.
Affected plant stages: vegetative growing, flowering and fruiting stages
Affected plant parts: on leaves PINASL3.jpg , rarely on branches or fruit
Biology and ecology
Pinnaspis aspidistrae has been recorded reproducing sexually and parthenogenetically, with two generations per year under galss and development taking 95 days from egg to egg-laying female (Miller and Davidson, 1990). Each adult female may lay up to 108 eggs, and the life cycle takes about 95 days (Werner, 1931). Eggs hatch about 10 days after they are laid (Kosztarab, 1996).
Crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and move to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. Dispersal of sessile adults and eggs occurs through human transport of infested plant material.
Economic impact
Pinnaspis aspidistrae is an important pest of foliage plants (Beardsley and Gonzalez, 1975); Baker and Shearin, 1992, reported it as a pest of foliage ferns in USA (North Carolina). In the Society Is, Doane, 1909, described P. aspidistrae as the most serious pest of coconut after Aspidiotus destructor, and mentioned that it was damaging Solanaceae including tomatoes in French Oceania. The species is a pest of bananas in the South Pacific islands, and of tea, oil palm and rubber in Malaysia (Chua and Wood, 1990). Froggatt, 1940, recorded P. aspidistrae as a pest of Citrus in Western Samoa, Nascimento, 1981, and Moraes et al., 1989, describe it as one of the main Citrus pests in Brazil (Bahia). Crouzel, 1973, listed P. asidistrae as a pest in Argentina, and Foldi, 2001, listed it as an occasional pest in France. In Poland, this species causes serious damage to ornamental plants in glasshouses (Labanowski, 1999).
Detection and inspection methods
Closely examine leaves, bark or fruit of the hosts listed above, for mussel-shaped, light to dark brown scale covers, each with yellowish-brown terminal exuviae at the narrow end PINASL3.jpg .
Natural enemies
Parasitoids:
- Ablerus sp., in India (Andhra Pradesh)
- Adelencyrtus sp., in India (Andhra Pradesh)
- Aphelinus sp., in India (Andhra Pradesh)
Predators:
- Cheletogenes ornatus, in Brazil (Bahia)
- Chrysopa sp., in Brazil (Sao Paulo)
- Pentilia egena, in Brazil (Sao Paulo)
Distribution
See Pinnaspis aspidistrae distribution.
It is often difficult to distinguish P. aspidistrae from P. strachani in the field, as the difference in scale cover colour is not always reliable. Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species.
Comments
Pinnaspis aspidistrae is a cosmopolitan, polyphagous and damaging species that occurs under glass in temperate regions; it prefers tropical or subtropical conditions. It may have originated in eastern Asia (Longo et al., 1995). Pinnaspis aspidistrae has sometimes been confused with Pinnaspis strachani in the past, when some authors regarded it as a junior synonym of P. strachani. The distribution below may partly reflect a combination of the two species. Kawai, 1980, listed P. aspidistrae in Japan; however, his illustration of P. aspidistrae shows a dorsal sclerosis typical of P. strachani, which he regarded as a junior synonym of P. aspidistrae. He may have been working with a mixture of the two species, or with P. strachani only.
Europe
Belgium: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Bulgaria: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Former USSR
Transcaucasus: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
France: present, no further details (Foldi, 2001)
Germany: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Italy: in the south (Longo et al., 1995)
Sicily: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
Monaco: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Portugal: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Madeira: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Spain: present in Almería, Huelva, Madrid, Murcia and Sevilla (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993)
Balearic Is: present (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993)
Canary Is: present, no further details (Amparo Blay Golcoechea, 1993; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
United Kingdom: widespread under glass (C.P. Malumphy, Central Science Laboratory, UK, pers. comm.)
Asia
Bhutan: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
China
Fujian: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Tao, 1999)
Guangdong: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Tao, 1999)
Hong Kong: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Hubei: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Inner Mongolia: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Jiangsu: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Shanxi: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Tao, 1999)
Shandong: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Tao, 1999)
Zhejiang: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Tao, 1999)
India
Andhra Pradesh: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Assam: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Delhi: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Gujarat: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Karnataka: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Kerala: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Maharashtra: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Orissa: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Tamil Nadu: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Indonesia
Irian Jaya: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Java: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Sumatra: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Iran: Caspian coast (Seghatoleslami, 1977; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Iraq: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Israel: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Japan
Honshu: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Kyushu: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Shikoku: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Korea: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Lebanon: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Malaysia
West Malaysia: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Sabah: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Pakistan: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Philippines: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Saudi Arabia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sri Lanka: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Syria: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Taiwan: present, no further details (Wong et al., 1999; Tao, 1999)
Thailand: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Turkey: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Africa
Algeria: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Angola: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Benin: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Cameroon: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Côte d'Ivoire: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Egypt: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Ghana: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Madagascar: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Mauritus: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Williams and Williams, 1988)
Morocco: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Mozambique: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Nigeria: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sao Tomé: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Seychelles: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Sierra Leone: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
South Africa: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Tanzania: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Togo: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Western Hemisphere
Argentina
Buenos Aires: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Corrientes: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Jujuy: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Misiones: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Tucumán: present, no further details (Claps and Terán, 2001; Claps et al., 2001a)
Bermuda: quite frequent (Hodgson and Hilburn, 1991)
Brazil
Amazonas: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Bahia: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Cerrados: present, no further details (Murakami et al., 1984)
Guanabara: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Maranhao: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Minas Gerais: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Pará: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Paraiba: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Paraná: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Rio de Janiero: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Rio Grande do Sul: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Santa Catarina: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Sao Paulo: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Claps et al., 2001a)
Chile: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Easter Island: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tarapacá: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Colombia: present, no further details (Mosquera, 1973; CIE, 1977; Kondo, 2001)
Cuba: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Jamaica: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Puerto Rico: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Mexico: present, no further details (Miller, 1996)
Panama: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Paraguay: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Suriname: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Trinidad: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
USA
Alabama: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Arkansas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
California: present, no further details (Gill, 1997)
Connecticut: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
District of Colombia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Florida: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Nakahara, 1982)
Georgia: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Hawaii: present on Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, Kauai and Molokai (Heu, 2002)
Iowa: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Illinois: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Indiana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Kansas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Kentucky: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Louisiana: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Massachusetts: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Maryland: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Michigan: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Missouri: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Mississippi: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New Jersey: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
New York: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Ohio: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Oregon: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Pennsylvania: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
South Carolina: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Tennessee: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Texas: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Utah: present, no further details (Nakahara, 1982)
Virginia: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; Nakahara, 1982)
Venezuela: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Oceania
Australia
New South Wales: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Queensland: present, no further details (CIE, 1977; CSIRO, 2001)
South Australia: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Cook Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Fiji: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
French Oceania: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Kiribati: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
New Caledonia: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
New Zealand: present (Archibald et al., 1979)
Niue: present, no further details (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Palau: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Papua New Guinea: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Ponape: present (Beardsley, 1966)
Society Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tonga: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Tuvalu: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Vanuatu: present, no further details (CIE, 1977)
Western Samoa: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)