(Signoret, 1869)
Diagnosis
Scale cover of adult female in life 1.0-2.0 mm long, ovoid to oblong, flat to slightly convex, slightly transparent greyish or yellowish white or tan, with subcentral exuviae darker yellow or tan( HEMCYAL2.jpg , centre). Male scale cover elongate oval, smaller and lighter coloured than female cover, with subterminal exuviae (Davidson and Miller, 1990; Gill, 1997) HEMCYANL.jpg and HEMCYAL2.jpg . Body of adult female yellow. Adult males are winged (Ghauri, 1962; Kosztarab, 1996).
Body of slide-mounted adult female membranous and pyriform, with a well-developed eye spine present on each side HEMCYAS.jpg . Pygidium with large median lobes, quite small but well-developed, rounded second lobes and small (often pointed) third lobes; anal opening usually fairly large, situated near the posterior margin of the pygidium (usually less than 2.3 times its length from base of median lobes); paraphyses shorter than the lobes, present only on the margin between the third lobes; perivulvar pores present HEMCYAP.jpg .
Host range
Hemiberlesia cyanophylli is a highly polyphagous species that has been recorded from hosts belonging to 75 genera in 44 plant families (Davidson and Miller, 1990), but its host range is probably wider. In California, it prefers cacti and palms (Gill, 1997). This species has been successfully reared on potato tubers and pumpkin (Li and Liao, 1990). Hosts include species of: Acacia, Annona, Areca, Artocarpus altilis, Asparagus, Beilschmedia, Buxus, Camellia, Castela, Cattleya, Celtis, Chenopodium, Chrysalidocarpus, Cinchona, Citrus, Coccoloba, Cocos nucifera, Copernicia, Cucurbita, Cycas, Euonymus, Ficus, Gardenia, Grevillea, Hevea brasiliensis, Inga, Ipomoea batatas, Jasminum, Laelia, Laurus nobilis, Ligustrum, Maesa, Mammillaria, Mangifera indica, Maytenus, Melia, Miconia, Musa, Myrica, Nerium, Olea europea, Opuntia, Palmae, Passiflora edulis, Persea americana, Phoebe, Phoenix, Phorodendron, Plumeria, Pritchardia, Psychotria, Saccharum officinarum, Sida, Solanum, Tecoma stans, Theobroma cacao, Vitis vinifera, Washingtonia, Wisteria and Yucca.
Affected plant stages: vegetative growing, flowering and fruiting stages
Affected plant parts: on leaf undersides HEMCYAL1.jpg , fruits and stems
Biology and ecology
There are several generations of H. cyanophylli each year in California (Gill, 1997), and up to five per year in northern Taiwan (Shiao, 1979). In Taiwan, climatic factors were found to account for 35.5% of mortality of H. cyanophylli (Hsiao, 1981). He et al., 1998, found that it reproduced most successfully at 28°C and 75% relative humidity; they found that the nymphal stages all together lasted 37-64.5 days at 20-28°C.
Crawlers are the primary dispersal stage and move to new areas of the plant or are dispersed by wind or animal contact. Mortality due to abiotic factors is high in this stage. Dispersal of sessile adults and eggs occurs through human transport of infested plant material.
Symptoms
Feeding by H. cyanophylli on tea leaves in Taiwan and in Papua New Guinea caused chlorotic spotting and subsequent leaf drop (Shiao, 1979; Greve and Ismay, 1983).
Economic impact
Hemiberlesia cyanophylli is a pest of bananas worldwide, and is also a known pest of tea in Taiwan (Chua and Wood, 1990). Infestations in nurseries sometimes require pesticide treatment in California (Gill, 1997). Dekle, 1976, listed H. cyanophylli as a pest of palms in Florida. Silva, 1950, mentions the species as a pest of cocoa in Brazil. Hemiberlesia cyanophylli is a pest of olive in Peru (Canales Canales and Valdivieso, 1999). Claps et al., 2001a, mention that it is of economic significance on olives in Chile. The species is a significant pest of tea in northern Taiwan (Shiao, 1979), infesting the stem, branches and leaves, making the bushes weakened and unproductive; persistent attacks may kill pruned bushes (Chua and Wood, 1990). Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998, refer to H. cyanophylli as a dangerous pest. Foldi, 2001, lists this species as an ocasional pest in France.
Detection and inspection methods
Examine leaf undersides, fruit and stems for ovoid to oblong, flat to slightly convex, slightly transparent greyish or yellowish white or tan scale covers, each with darker yellow or tan subcentral exuviae. Chlorotic spotting of leaves and leaf drop may be present.
Phytosanitary protection
Hemiberlesia cyanophylli is mentioned on quarantine lists (Burger and Ulenberg, 1990).
Natural enemies
Parasitoids:
- Aphytis spp.
- Aphytis chrysomphali, in Peru, Taiwan, Hawaii
- Aphytis vandenboschi, in China
- Encarsia citrina, in Hawaii
- Encarsia lounsburyi, in Peru
- Signiphora aspidioti, in Hawaii
Predators:
- Rhyzobius lophanthae, in Republic of Georgia
- Rhyzobius pulchellus, attacking: nymphs, adults, in Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Peru
- Signiphora spp.
- Signiphora fax
Pathogens:
- Fusarium juruanum in Taiwan
Distribution
See Hemiberlesia cyanophylli distribution.
Microscopic examination of slide-mounted adult females is required for authoritative identification to species. Species once placed in the genus Abgrallaspis are difficult to identify, so plant quarantine identifications should be sent for expert confirmation or passed through the keys by Davidson, 1964, and Komosinska, 1969.
Hemiberlesia gliwicensis (Komosinska) from Brazil is similar to H. cyanophylli, but differs in having about 10 perivulvar pores and only 3 plates lateral to each third lobe; in contrast, H. cyanophylli has about 22 perivulvar pores and 4 or more plates lateral to each third lobe HEMCYAP.jpg. Hemiberlesia gliwicensis has been recorded from Brazil and Poland (under glass) on both leaf surfaces of Billbergia nutans; Komosinska, 1969, recorded that heavy infestations in Poland caused leaf chlorosis and often killed the host-plant. Immature and adult female scale covers, low magnification HEMGLIL1.jpg ; higher magnification HEMGLIL2.jpg
Diaspis echinocacti DIAECHP2.jpg could be confused with Hemiberlesia cyanophylli HEMCYAP.jpg in the field, but the species are very different when examined as slide mounts.
Comments
The area of origin of Hemiberlesia cyanophylli is not known. It is now widespread throughout the tropical and subtropical areas of the world, and present under glass in temperate areas (Nakahara, 1982; Davidson and Miller, 1990). Records from the former USSR on open ground refer to Aspidiotus degeneratus (Leonardi) (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998).
Europe
Former USSR
Georgia, Republic of : present, no further details (Gaprindashvili, 1975)
France: present, no further details (Foldi, 2001; Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Italy: in the south (Longo et al., 1995)
Sardinia: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
Sicily: present, no further details (Longo et al., 1995)
United Kingdom: widespread under glass and outdoors in sheltered situations (C.P. Malumphy, Central Science Laboratory, UK, pers. comm.)
England: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Asia
China
Fujian: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
Hong Kong: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Zhejiang: present, no further details (Tao, 1999)
India
Assam: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Karnataka: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Tamil Nadu: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Indonesia
Sumatra: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Iran: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Iraq: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Israel: present, no further details (Gerson and Tsur, 1970)
Japan: present, cannot read any further details (Kawai, 1980; Tao, 1999)
Malaysia
West Malaysia: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sabah: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Philippines: present, no further details (Velasquez, 1971)
Sri Lanka: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Taiwan: present, no further details (Wong et al., 1999; Tao, 1999)
Africa
Egypt: present, no further details (Danzig and Pellizzari, 1998)
Ghana: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Mauritius: present, no further details (Williams and Williams, 1988)
Nigeria: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Réunion: present, no further details (Williams and Williams, 1988)
Seychelles: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Sierra Leone: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
St Helena: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Uganda: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Zimbabwe: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Western Hemisphere
Argentina: very common (Claps et al., 2001a)
Buenos Aires: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Catamarca: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Córdoba: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Entre Rios: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Jujuy: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
La Rioja: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Salta: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Santiago del Estero: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tucumán: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Bermuda: fairly common (Hodgson and Hilburn, 1991)
Brazil: widely distributed (Claps et al., 2001a)
Bahia: present, pest on cocoa (Silva, 1950; Claps et al., 2001a)
Guanabara: present, no further details (Silva et al., 1968)
Minas Gerais: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Paraíba: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Paraná: present, no further details (Silva et al., 1968)
Rio Grande do Sul: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Rio de Janeiro: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Sao Paulo: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Chile
Atacama: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Antofagusta: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Coquimbo: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Santiago: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Tarapacá: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Valparaiso: present, no further details (Claps et al., 2001a)
Colombia: present (Kondo, 2001)
Costa Rica: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Mexico: widespread (Miller, 1996)
Nicaragua: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Panama: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Peru: present, no further details (Canales Canales and Valdivieso, 1999)
Trinidad: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Uruguay: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
USA: general distribution; under glass in temperate areas (Nakahara, 1982)
California: widespread but not common (Gill, 1997)
Florida: present (Dekle, 1976)
Hawaii: present on Oahu, Hawaii, Maui and Kauai (Heu, 2002)
Tennessee: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Oceania
Australia
New South Wales: present, no further details (CSIRO, 2001)
Queensland: present, no further details (CSIRO, 2001)
Tasmania: present, no further details (CSIRO, 2001)
Cook Is: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Fiji: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Kiribati: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Marshall Is: present, no further details (Beardsley, 1966)
New Caledonia: present, no further details (Cohic, 1958)
New Zealand: present, no further details (Charles and Henderson, submitted)
Niue: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Papua New Guinea: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tahiti: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tonga: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Tuvalu: The Natural History Museum collection, London, UK
Vanuatu: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)
Western Samoa: present (Williams and Watson, 1988)